Good evening, this is Michael Anthony, and you’re listening to British History 101. Tonight’s episode will feature a discussion on Magna Carta, the “Great Charter” that is known round the world as one of the greatest pieces of legislation in history. It is known today as one of the biggest influences on the creation of worldwide constitutional law and is the best known document restricting the rights of a monarch under legal binding. We’ll see what brought it about, who was involved, and whether or not it really had much of an effect on England.
Our timeframe for Magna Carta is the 13th century. During this time period, English monarchs were at one of their high points of power – a scary thought indeed when a man such as King John was crowned in 1199. John was king of all England and held vast tracts of land in Norman territory. His holding of supreme and unyielding authority led to the event causing him to become the English king popularly known for centuries after as the ruler whose power was cut out from under him by the nobles of his land.
One catalyst that brought about the need for this “Great Charter” was John’s control over the Church in England. Traditionally, the king appointed a candidate to be Archbishop of Canterbury, and the monks of Canterbury would approve said candidate. However, by the early 1200s, those same monks began to feel that they had no control over the process, and thus they elected their own candidate. John, enraged to find tradition thrown away and that he had been left out of the question altogether, appointed the Bishop of Norwich to the Canterbury seat. Norwich was sent to Rome for papal approval, but the reigning pope, Innocent III, rejected him, along with the man originally chosen by the Canterbury monks. Innocent instead used his influence to make the monks pick a man named Stephen Langton for the holy job. John, in a display of his power as king, exiled the Canterbury monks from his kingdom for not accepting his candidate and electing the man Innocent had proposed. In another move of retaliation, Pope Innocent III exercised the power of the Church by placing all of England under papal interdict – the prohibition of public worship – in 1208. Masses were not said; Holy Eucharist was not received; church bells fell silent, and the fates of souls across the island were unknown. In effect, Innocent did what he could to pull the Church’s blessing from England. The following year, Innocent excommunicated John, which more or less took him out of the running for acceptance into heaven (according to the Church’s laws barring excommunicants from receiving the Sacraments.). This was less a matter of spirituality than a declaration of England as an enemy of the Church – and in these times, being an enemy of the Roman Church, especially in Europe, was a very bad thing. Pope Innocent even gave Philip of France support to invade England in 1212.
Faced with these enormous punishments, John acquiesced to Innocent’s pressure and gave Stephen Langton the archbishopric of Canterbury. He also allowed the exiled monks to return. He even went so far as to give England and Ireland to the pope as papal territories and renting them for 1,000 marks per year. Here we see the dispute turn from a disagreement between king and Church to a feud between king and nobles – the English baronage was understandably infuriated at John’s actions. The lands they owned had become papal property and thus their power was greatly weakened. It is not hard to see the difficulties that were bound to arise from nobility being pitted against monarch.
Although John had more or less turned his realm over to Rome, the country could still operate without his leadership – the civil service put into place by Henry II took care of that. However, it costs money to run a kingdom. John had lost most of his Norman holdings in his messy ascent to the throne, and the loss of all that land led to a huge loss in tax revenue. John’s lost lands could not be reclaimed without raising an enormous amount of taxes, and tradition made it very difficult to increase the tax rate. John therefore introduced several radical (and ridiculous) laws that would raise the state’s income, including laws regarding the king’s forest that carried severe punishments for menial crimes. At that time in history, the feudal system included scutage – payment made to an overlord in lieu of military service. In the 2 score years or so before John’s coronation, the scutage had been raised eleven times. In John’s seventeen years as king, he raised it the same number of times himself. Furthermore, King John also brought about the first income tax to support the revenue lost to his military failures in Normandy.
By 1215, England’s nobility had had enough of this business. On June 10 of that year, many of the country’s barons stormed London, taking it by force. Five days later, they forced John to sign what they called the “Articles of the Barons” on the meadow at Runnymede. As an outward display of their so-called loyalty to John, those same barons reaffirmed their fealty to him on June 19. About a month later, on July 15, 1215, the royal chancery formally recorded the agreement, and Magna Carta was born. The most important part of Magna Carta, or at least the most important part as far as what it is known for, was clause 61, which formed a committee of 25 barons who had the power to overrule the decisions of the king. John was forced to swear obedience to this committee, should they decide to exercise their power and veto the actions of the king.
Interestingly enough, the Pope spoke out against Magna Carta. He issued an annulment against it, saying it was a “shameful and demeaning agreement, forced upon the king by violence and fear.” He gave his official blessing for John to openly disobey the new legislation. It is quite obvious that Innocent’s motives had little to do with John’s dignity; rather, the Pope was angered that the nobility would claim authority over the lands John had handed over to him.
Soon after signing the Great Charter, King John of England renounced its authority. This lead to the civil war now known as the First Baron’s War. The war carried on for over a year; it ended with John’s death on October 18, 1216. Upon his child son Henry’s accession to the throne, the war was ended, and King Henry III was the new lord in the country.
In a cunning move, Henry’s regents reissued Magna Carta a little less than a month after his coronation – albeit without its restrictive Clause 61, among other Clauses. Henry himself issued the Charter again in 1225, shortening it even further; his son, Edward I, reissued it one final time in 1297, confirming the version that Henry III had set down as authoritative. Thus, the Magna Carta that survives today does not have what the original document contained; rather, it is Edward’s 1297 edition that we call Magna Carta now.
The laws set down in Magna Carta were slowly but surely repealed in the centuries following that day at Runnymede, and very few of the statutes put forth by the document remain today. However, its influence can be seen in any modern legislation that upholds the rights of people against rulers – a fine example of this is the U.S. Constitution. It was an invaluable piece in the puzzle that gradually came together to form modern democracy, and without it the process would sure have taken decades, if not centuries, longer, and we may not be at the point of freedom we find ourselves at today.
And so there we have it. The actions of a power hungry and hot-tempered ruler brought into reign the laws set forth to prohibit a monarch from running amok with authority. Although John flagrantly disregarded Magna Carta, it was nevertheless a valuable link in the chain that connects the politics of the past with the system of today. We have Magna Carta to thank for setting into motion the many freedoms and liberties we experience every day.
I’d like to ask for a bit of feedback regarding this week’s episode. I have tried a few things to correct the volume problem, but I haven’t heard from anyone on whether or not they actually worked! If you have a few spare moments, drop me a line and let me know how British History 101 makes it into your ears. Another huge thank you to Dan in New Zealand for all his efforts!
Listeners of British History 101 know how much of a proponent I am for the podcasting community. Last week, we heard from Phillip Zannini on his new ‘cast, the Biography Podcast. It’s fresh, fun, and full of interesting information that makes me glad Philip started it. However, I’d like to remind everyone this week once again of the great podcast that started it all for me, Matt’s Today in History.
Thanks, Matt. If anyone listening now is like me, I know they look forward to seeing a new episode on their podcast list every day.
That’s it for this episode of British History 101. If you’d like to look back over our discussion of Magna Carta, I hope you can check out my blog at britishhistory101.blogspot.com for a transcript of this and every other episode. I’ve run into some trouble with the blog; for some reason, new posts aren’t appearing. I’m in contact with Blogger as we speak to try and rectify this issue. Please bear with me! Send suggestions, questions, comments, rants, and raves to BritishHistory101@gmail.com. Our music tonight is “O Maria, Prius Via,” performed by Joglaresa and available on Magnatune.com. Magnatune is an independent online record label that equally shares all revenue from album sales with their hand-selected artists while allowing them to retain full rights to their works. Visit magnatune.com for great music at low prices and support the many wonderful artists hosted there. Thanks again to all of British History 101’s listeners. Until next week, my best to you all, and have a great night. I can’t wait to learn with you again.

Good evening, this is Michael Anthony, and you’re listening to British History 101. Tonight’s episode will feature a discussion on Magna Carta, the “Great Charter” that is known round the world as one of the greatest pieces of legislation in history. It is known today as one of the biggest influences on the creation of worldwide constitutional law and is the best known document restricting the rights of a monarch under legal binding. We’ll see what brought it about, who was involved, and whether or not it really had much of an effect on England.
Our timeframe for Magna Carta is the 13th century. During this time period, English monarchs were at one of their high points of power – a scary thought indeed when a man such as King John was crowned in 1199. John was king of all England and held vast tracts of land in Norman territory. His holding of supreme and unyielding authority led to the event causing him to become the English king popularly known for centuries after as the ruler whose power was cut out from under him by the nobles of his land.
One catalyst that brought about the need for this “Great Charter” was John’s control over the Church in England. Traditionally, the king appointed a candidate to be Archbishop of Canterbury, and the monks of Canterbury would approve said candidate. However, by the early 1200s, those same monks began to feel that they had no control over the process, and thus they elected their own candidate. John, enraged to find tradition thrown away and that he had been left out of the question altogether, appointed the Bishop of Norwich to the Canterbury seat. Norwich was sent to Rome for papal approval, but the reigning pope, Innocent III, rejected him, along with the man originally chosen by the Canterbury monks. Innocent instead used his influence to make the monks pick a man named Stephen Langton for the holy job. John, in a display of his power as king, exiled the Canterbury monks from his kingdom for not accepting his candidate and electing the man Innocent had proposed. In another move of retaliation, Pope Innocent III exercised the power of the Church by placing all of England under papal interdict – the prohibition of public worship – in 1208. Masses were not said; Holy Eucharist was not received; church bells fell silent, and the fates of souls across the island were unknown. In effect, Innocent did what he could to pull the Church’s blessing from England. The following year, Innocent excommunicated John, which more or less took him out of the running for acceptance into heaven (according to the Church’s laws barring excommunicants from receiving the Sacraments.). This was less a matter of spirituality than a declaration of England as an enemy of the Church – and in these times, being an enemy of the Roman Church, especially in Europe, was a very bad thing. Pope Innocent even gave Philip of France support to invade England in 1212.
Faced with these enormous punishments, John acquiesced to Innocent’s pressure and gave Stephen Langton the archbishopric of Canterbury. He also allowed the exiled monks to return. He even went so far as to give England and Ireland to the pope as papal territories and renting them for 1,000 marks per year. Here we see the dispute turn from a disagreement between king and Church to a feud between king and nobles – the English baronage was understandably infuriated at John’s actions. The lands they owned had become papal property and thus their power was greatly weakened. It is not hard to see the difficulties that were bound to arise from nobility being pitted against monarch.
Although John had more or less turned his realm over to Rome, the country could still operate without his leadership – the civil service put into place by Henry II took care of that. However, it costs money to run a kingdom. John had lost most of his Norman holdings in his messy ascent to the throne, and the loss of all that land led to a huge loss in tax revenue. John’s lost lands could not be reclaimed without raising an enormous amount of taxes, and tradition made it very difficult to increase the tax rate. John therefore introduced several radical (and ridiculous) laws that would raise the state’s income, including laws regarding the king’s forest that carried severe punishments for menial crimes. At that time in history, the feudal system included scutage – payment made to an overlord in lieu of military service. In the 2 score years or so before John’s coronation, the scutage had been raised eleven times. In John’s seventeen years as king, he raised it the same number of times himself. Furthermore, King John also brought about the first income tax to support the revenue lost to his military failures in Normandy.
By 1215, England’s nobility had had enough of this business. On June 10 of that year, many of the country’s barons stormed London, taking it by force. Five days later, they forced John to sign what they called the “Articles of the Barons” on the meadow at Runnymede. As an outward display of their so-called loyalty to John, those same barons reaffirmed their fealty to him on June 19. About a month later, on July 15, 1215, the royal chancery formally recorded the agreement, and Magna Carta was born. The most important part of Magna Carta, or at least the most important part as far as what it is known for, was clause 61, which formed a committee of 25 barons who had the power to overrule the decisions of the king. John was forced to swear obedience to this committee, should they decide to exercise their power and veto the actions of the king.
Interestingly enough, the Pope spoke out against Magna Carta. He issued an annulment against it, saying it was a “shameful and demeaning agreement, forced upon the king by violence and fear.” He gave his official blessing for John to openly disobey the new legislation. It is quite obvious that Innocent’s motives had little to do with John’s dignity; rather, the Pope was angered that the nobility would claim authority over the lands John had handed over to him.
Soon after signing the Great Charter, King John of England renounced its authority. This lead to the civil war now known as the First Baron’s War. The war carried on for over a year; it ended with John’s death on October 18, 1216. Upon his child son Henry’s accession to the throne, the war was ended, and King Henry III was the new lord in the country.
In a cunning move, Henry’s regents reissued Magna Carta a little less than a month after his coronation – albeit without its restrictive Clause 61, among other Clauses. Henry himself issued the Charter again in 1225, shortening it even further; his son, Edward I, reissued it one final time in 1297, confirming the version that Henry III had set down as authoritative. Thus, the Magna Carta that survives today does not have what the original document contained; rather, it is Edward’s 1297 edition that we call Magna Carta now.
The laws set down in Magna Carta were slowly but surely repealed in the centuries following that day at Runnymede, and very few of the statutes put forth by the document remain today. However, its influence can be seen in any modern legislation that upholds the rights of people against rulers – a fine example of this is the U.S. Constitution. It was an invaluable piece in the puzzle that gradually came together to form modern democracy, and without it the process would sure have taken decades, if not centuries, longer, and we may not be at the point of freedom we find ourselves at today.
And so there we have it. The actions of a power hungry and hot-tempered ruler brought into reign the laws set forth to prohibit a monarch from running amok with authority. Although John flagrantly disregarded Magna Carta, it was nevertheless a valuable link in the chain that connects the politics of the past with the system of today. We have Magna Carta to thank for setting into motion the many freedoms and liberties we experience every day.
I’d like to ask for a bit of feedback regarding this week’s episode. I have tried a few things to correct the volume problem, but I haven’t heard from anyone on whether or not they actually worked! If you have a few spare moments, drop me a line and let me know how British History 101 makes it into your ears. Another huge thank you to Dan in New Zealand for all his efforts!
Listeners of British History 101 know how much of a proponent I am for the podcasting community. Last week, we heard from Phillip Zannini on his new ‘cast, the Biography Podcast. It’s fresh, fun, and full of interesting information that makes me glad Philip started it. However, I’d like to remind everyone this week once again of the great podcast that started it all for me, Matt’s Today in History.
Thanks, Matt. If anyone listening now is like me, I know they look forward to seeing a new episode on their podcast list every day.
That’s it for this episode of British History 101. If you’d like to look back over our discussion of Magna Carta, I hope you can check out my blog at britishhistory101.blogspot.com for a transcript of this and every other episode. I’ve run into some trouble with the blog; for some reason, new posts aren’t appearing. I’m in contact with Blogger as we speak to try and rectify this issue. Please bear with me! Send suggestions, questions, comments, rants, and raves to BritishHistory101@gmail.com. Our music tonight is “O Maria, Prius Via,” performed by Joglaresa and available on Magnatune.com. Magnatune is an independent online record label that equally shares all revenue from album sales with their hand-selected artists while allowing them to retain full rights to their works. Visit magnatune.com for great music at low prices and support the many wonderful artists hosted there. Thanks again to all of British History 101’s listeners. Until next week, my best to you all, and have a great night. I can’t wait to learn with you again.

Good evening, this is Michael Anthony, and you’re listening to British History 101. After last week’s lack of an installment, I hope the most recent edition of this podcast entertains and educates as much as possible.
Tonight’s episode comes from a suggestion by Gary from Houston, Texas. Gary wrote in and said, “I was wondering if you could do a piece on Hadrian’s Wall – how was it built, what was its purpose, and was it successful?” Thanks for the suggestion, Gary, and we’ll get right to it.
Hadrian’s Wall was constructed by, obviously, Hadrian, Roman emperor from AD 76 to 138. He built it to halt the invading tribes of modern-day Scotland to the north and provide a definite boundary to the British region of the Roman Empire; it also served to prevent dangerous groups of tribes in the area from uniting under one banner by splitting them apart with a physical boundary. During the Roman Empire, Hadrian’s Wall was the most heavily fortified and protected border in all Europe. It may also have served as a way to tax traveling merchants; this is suggested by the several gates found along the wall’s length.
The Wall, which extended from the Solway Firth on the coast of the Irish Sea in eastern modern-day England to Wallsend on the River Tyne across the island to the west, was begun in 122 AD and was more or less complete in ten years’ time. It roughly followed the line of the Stanegate Road running from Corbridge to Carlisle, which previously acted as the border of Roman territory – obviously, a stone wall provides much more protection than a simple road. The Wall crossed the river Irthing; east of the river, the Wall was made of stone and was 3 meters wide by 5 meters tall; west of the river, the Wall was originally a turf barrier 6 meters wide by 3 meters tall. The Wall’s design plans called for a 3 meter wide wall with a ditch and 80 small forts every Roman mile (the Wall was 80 Roman miles or 120 kilometers long) and a system of turrets for signaling and observation along the way. Along the area of the wall made of stone, local limestone was the rock of choice, and the turrets located along the length of the wall made of turf were also constructed strictly of stone. These turrets were all approximately 500 meters apart and only about 5 meters square inside.
Construction took place in 5 mile stretches. One group would lay the foundation all along the way, also building the small forts and turrets as they went, and a following group would build upon the foundation and make up the wall in the preceding group’s tracks. Soon after the Wall was finished, 14-17 full-sized forts were placed under construction along the length of the boundary, each having a garrison between 500 and 1000 troops. The Wall west of the river Irthing was also revamped, being rebuilt in sandstone.
Once the forts were in place, another barrier was built behind the wall itself. This was known as the Vallum, and consisted of a ditch 6 meters wide and 3 meters deep, with 10-meter-wide berms on either side. Causeways provided transportation across the Vallum. In front of the wall, that is, on the northern side, was another berm with pits containing obstacles and another ditch north of that berm. Obviously, this was a formidable barrier in itself to anyone wishing to lead an incursion south into the Romans’ territory – the physical construct was also defended by approximately 10,000 soldiers, including cavalry units 1,000 strong on either end of the wall and all the garrisons between the endpoints.
Hadrian’s Wall functioned as an effective barrier until his death in AD 138. When the new emperor, Antoninus Pius, came to power, he more or less abandoned Hadrian’s Wall and began constructing one of his own 160 kilometers north of the old Roman barrier in 142. This was, oddly enough, known as the Antonine Wall. This Wall was approximately 40 miles long, stretching from Old Kilpatrick to Bo’ness, Falkirk within the borders of modern-day Scotland. Antoninus’ Wall was an impressive construct, taking only 2 years to complete and having forts every two miles. The Wall itself was a turf barrier 4 meters tall with a wide ditch on the north side of it – a somewhat simplified version of Hadrian’s Wall to the south. This Wall formed the northern barrier of the Roman Empire for about 20 years before it was actually abandoned in favor of Hadrian’s Wall, which the occupying Roman legions fell back upon. This was mostly due to the fact that Antoninus was unable to conquer the troublesome tribes of northern Britain. Marcus Aurelius, his successor, made the decision to reinstate Hadrian’s Wall as the main defensive line and border of the Empire in Britain.
The Roman Empire began to lose its grip on the province of Britannia within a few centuries, and in the early 5th century our favorite island territory was devoid of its former Roman occupiers. Local Britons manned the wall for several decades into the 5th century, but soon it began to fall into disuse and the stone forming one of the greatest defensive barriers in human history was used to construct other buildings across the land.
So, Gary, we have seen how the wall was built, discussed its purpose, and now we should decide whether or not it was successful. With the objective of keeping out marauding northern tribes in mind, we see that it was indeed successful – so much so that, even after another emperor constructed another wall north of it, it was later brought back to glory due to its effectiveness. It defined the northern border of the Roman Empire in Britain for centuries, and can still be seen today. The one time that I was blessed with the opportunity to visit Hadrian’s Wall, I was extremely impressed – even now, it is astounding what Roman engineers accomplished with no more sophisticated tools than they had.
With that, let’s take a look at some miscellaneous business I think everyone should be aware of. I was alerted to a new podcast, entitled Biography Podcast. I think you can tell what it’s about, but I’ll let Phillip explain a little more.
Thanks, Phillip, for all your hard work, and we’ll all look forward to new episodes of your ‘cast.
British History 101 is listed at podcastalley.com, and I’d really appreciate it if you’d stop by and cast a vote for me if you have a few spare moments during your day. Thanks a lot!
Also – I’m not sure how this episode will sound to those of you who have experienced difficulty in the past. I’m still working with Dan on a solution and am trying as hard as I can to get it worked out. Once again, thank you Dan, and if anyone else has any suggestions, please let me know at your earliest convenience. I appreciate the help so much!
That’s it for this episode of British History 101. If you’d like to look back over our discussion of Hadrian’s Wall, check out my blog at britishhistory101.blogspot.com for a transcript of this and every other episode. Send suggestions, questions, comments, rants, and raves to BritishHistory101@gmail.com. Our music tonight is “Benedicamus Domino,” performed by Joglaresa and available on Magnatune.com. Magnatune is an independent online record label that equally shares all revenue from album sales with their hand-selected artists while allowing them to retain full rights to their works. Visit magnatune.com for great music at low prices and support the many wonderful artists hosted there. Thanks again to all of British History 101’s listeners, Phillip for bringing us Biography Podcast, and all those men and women who acted in the events that gave rise to the history of Britain and thus this podcast. Until next week, my best to you all, and have a great day. I can’t wait to learn with you again.

Good evening, this is Michael Anthony, and you’re listening to British History 101. After last week’s lack of an installment, I hope the most recent edition of this podcast entertains and educates as much as possible.
Tonight’s episode comes from a suggestion by Gary from Houston, Texas. Gary wrote in and said, “I was wondering if you could do a piece on Hadrian’s Wall – how was it built, what was its purpose, and was it successful?” Thanks for the suggestion, Gary, and we’ll get right to it.
Hadrian’s Wall was constructed by, obviously, Hadrian, Roman emperor from AD 76 to 138. He built it to halt the invading tribes of modern-day Scotland to the north and provide a definite boundary to the British region of the Roman Empire; it also served to prevent dangerous groups of tribes in the area from uniting under one banner by splitting them apart with a physical boundary. During the Roman Empire, Hadrian’s Wall was the most heavily fortified and protected border in all Europe. It may also have served as a way to tax traveling merchants; this is suggested by the several gates found along the wall’s length.
The Wall, which extended from the Solway Firth on the coast of the Irish Sea in eastern modern-day England to Wallsend on the River Tyne across the island to the west, was begun in 122 AD and was more or less complete in ten years’ time. It roughly followed the line of the Stanegate Road running from Corbridge to Carlisle, which previously acted as the border of Roman territory – obviously, a stone wall provides much more protection than a simple road. The Wall crossed the river Irthing; east of the river, the Wall was made of stone and was 3 meters wide by 5 meters tall; west of the river, the Wall was originally a turf barrier 6 meters wide by 3 meters tall. The Wall’s design plans called for a 3 meter wide wall with a ditch and 80 small forts every Roman mile (the Wall was 80 Roman miles or 120 kilometers long) and a system of turrets for signaling and observation along the way. Along the area of the wall made of stone, local limestone was the rock of choice, and the turrets located along the length of the wall made of turf were also constructed strictly of stone. These turrets were all approximately 500 meters apart and only about 5 meters square inside.
Construction took place in 5 mile stretches. One group would lay the foundation all along the way, also building the small forts and turrets as they went, and a following group would build upon the foundation and make up the wall in the preceding group’s tracks. Soon after the Wall was finished, 14-17 full-sized forts were placed under construction along the length of the boundary, each having a garrison between 500 and 1000 troops. The Wall west of the river Irthing was also revamped, being rebuilt in sandstone.
Once the forts were in place, another barrier was built behind the wall itself. This was known as the Vallum, and consisted of a ditch 6 meters wide and 3 meters deep, with 10-meter-wide berms on either side. Causeways provided transportation across the Vallum. In front of the wall, that is, on the northern side, was another berm with pits containing obstacles and another ditch north of that berm. Obviously, this was a formidable barrier in itself to anyone wishing to lead an incursion south into the Romans’ territory – the physical construct was also defended by approximately 10,000 soldiers, including cavalry units 1,000 strong on either end of the wall and all the garrisons between the endpoints.
Hadrian’s Wall functioned as an effective barrier until his death in AD 138. When the new emperor, Antoninus Pius, came to power, he more or less abandoned Hadrian’s Wall and began constructing one of his own 160 kilometers north of the old Roman barrier in 142. This was, oddly enough, known as the Antonine Wall. This Wall was approximately 40 miles long, stretching from Old Kilpatrick to Bo’ness, Falkirk within the borders of modern-day Scotland. Antoninus’ Wall was an impressive construct, taking only 2 years to complete and having forts every two miles. The Wall itself was a turf barrier 4 meters tall with a wide ditch on the north side of it – a somewhat simplified version of Hadrian’s Wall to the south. This Wall formed the northern barrier of the Roman Empire for about 20 years before it was actually abandoned in favor of Hadrian’s Wall, which the occupying Roman legions fell back upon. This was mostly due to the fact that Antoninus was unable to conquer the troublesome tribes of northern Britain. Marcus Aurelius, his successor, made the decision to reinstate Hadrian’s Wall as the main defensive line and border of the Empire in Britain.
The Roman Empire began to lose its grip on the province of Britannia within a few centuries, and in the early 5th century our favorite island territory was devoid of its former Roman occupiers. Local Britons manned the wall for several decades into the 5th century, but soon it began to fall into disuse and the stone forming one of the greatest defensive barriers in human history was used to construct other buildings across the land.
So, Gary, we have seen how the wall was built, discussed its purpose, and now we should decide whether or not it was successful. With the objective of keeping out marauding northern tribes in mind, we see that it was indeed successful – so much so that, even after another emperor constructed another wall north of it, it was later brought back to glory due to its effectiveness. It defined the northern border of the Roman Empire in Britain for centuries, and can still be seen today. The one time that I was blessed with the opportunity to visit Hadrian’s Wall, I was extremely impressed – even now, it is astounding what Roman engineers accomplished with no more sophisticated tools than they had.
With that, let’s take a look at some miscellaneous business I think everyone should be aware of. I was alerted to a new podcast, entitled Biography Podcast. I think you can tell what it’s about, but I’ll let Phillip explain a little more.
Thanks, Phillip, for all your hard work, and we’ll all look forward to new episodes of your ‘cast.
British History 101 is listed at podcastalley.com, and I’d really appreciate it if you’d stop by and cast a vote for me if you have a few spare moments during your day. Thanks a lot!
Also – I’m not sure how this episode will sound to those of you who have experienced difficulty in the past. I’m still working with Dan on a solution and am trying as hard as I can to get it worked out. Once again, thank you Dan, and if anyone else has any suggestions, please let me know at your earliest convenience. I appreciate the help so much!
That’s it for this episode of British History 101. If you’d like to look back over our discussion of Hadrian’s Wall, check out my blog at britishhistory101.blogspot.com for a transcript of this and every other episode. Send suggestions, questions, comments, rants, and raves to BritishHistory101@gmail.com. Our music tonight is “Benedicamus Domino,” performed by Joglaresa and available on Magnatune.com. Magnatune is an independent online record label that equally shares all revenue from album sales with their hand-selected artists while allowing them to retain full rights to their works. Visit magnatune.com for great music at low prices and support the many wonderful artists hosted there. Thanks again to all of British History 101’s listeners, Phillip for bringing us Biography Podcast, and all those men and women who acted in the events that gave rise to the history of Britain and thus this podcast. Until next week, my best to you all, and have a great day. I can’t wait to learn with you again.


MP3 File

Good evening, this is Michael Anthony, and you’re listening to British History 101. After last week’s lack of an installment, I hope the most recent edition of this podcast entertains and educates as much as possible.
Tonight’s episode comes from a suggestion by Gary from Houston, Texas. Gary wrote in and said, “I was wondering if you could do a piece on Hadrian’s Wall – how was it built, what was its purpose, and was it successful?” Thanks for the suggestion, Gary, and we’ll get right to it.
Hadrian’s Wall was constructed by, obviously, Hadrian, Roman emperor from AD 76 to 138. He built it to halt the invading tribes of modern-day Scotland to the north and provide a definite boundary to the British region of the Roman Empire; it also served to prevent dangerous groups of tribes in the area from uniting under one banner by splitting them apart with a physical boundary. During the Roman Empire, Hadrian’s Wall was the most heavily fortified and protected border in all Europe. It may also have served as a way to tax traveling merchants; this is suggested by the several gates found along the wall’s length.
The Wall, which extended from the Solway Firth on the coast of the Irish Sea in eastern modern-day England to Wallsend on the River Tyne across the island to the west, was begun in 122 AD and was more or less complete in ten years’ time. It roughly followed the line of the Stanegate Road running from Corbridge to Carlisle, which previously acted as the border of Roman territory – obviously, a stone wall provides much more protection than a simple road. The Wall crossed the river Irthing; east of the river, the Wall was made of stone and was 3 meters wide by 5 meters tall; west of the river, the Wall was originally a turf barrier 6 meters wide by 3 meters tall. The Wall’s design plans called for a 3 meter wide wall with a ditch and 80 small forts every Roman mile (the Wall was 80 Roman miles or 120 kilometers long) and a system of turrets for signaling and observation along the way. Along the area of the wall made of stone, local limestone was the rock of choice, and the turrets located along the length of the wall made of turf were also constructed strictly of stone. These turrets were all approximately 500 meters apart and only about 5 meters square inside.
Construction took place in 5 mile stretches. One group would lay the foundation all along the way, also building the small forts and turrets as they went, and a following group would build upon the foundation and make up the wall in the preceding group’s tracks. Soon after the Wall was finished, 14-17 full-sized forts were placed under construction along the length of the boundary, each having a garrison between 500 and 1000 troops. The Wall west of the river Irthing was also revamped, being rebuilt in sandstone.
Once the forts were in place, another barrier was built behind the wall itself. This was known as the Vallum, and consisted of a ditch 6 meters wide and 3 meters deep, with 10-meter-wide berms on either side. Causeways provided transportation across the Vallum. In front of the wall, that is, on the northern side, was another berm with pits containing obstacles and another ditch north of that berm. Obviously, this was a formidable barrier in itself to anyone wishing to lead an incursion south into the Romans’ territory – the physical construct was also defended by approximately 10,000 soldiers, including cavalry units 1,000 strong on either end of the wall and all the garrisons between the endpoints.
Hadrian’s Wall functioned as an effective barrier until his death in AD 138. When the new emperor, Antoninus Pius, came to power, he more or less abandoned Hadrian’s Wall and began constructing one of his own 160 kilometers north of the old Roman barrier in 142. This was, oddly enough, known as the Antonine Wall. This Wall was approximately 40 miles long, stretching from Old Kilpatrick to Bo’ness, Falkirk within the borders of modern-day Scotland. Antoninus’ Wall was an impressive construct, taking only 2 years to complete and having forts every two miles. The Wall itself was a turf barrier 4 meters tall with a wide ditch on the north side of it – a somewhat simplified version of Hadrian’s Wall to the south. This Wall formed the northern barrier of the Roman Empire for about 20 years before it was actually abandoned in favor of Hadrian’s Wall, which the occupying Roman legions fell back upon. This was mostly due to the fact that Antoninus was unable to conquer the troublesome tribes of northern Britain. Marcus Aurelius, his successor, made the decision to reinstate Hadrian’s Wall as the main defensive line and border of the Empire in Britain.
The Roman Empire began to lose its grip on the province of Britannia within a few centuries, and in the early 5th century our favorite island territory was devoid of its former Roman occupiers. Local Britons manned the wall for several decades into the 5th century, but soon it began to fall into disuse and the stone forming one of the greatest defensive barriers in human history was used to construct other buildings across the land.
So, Gary, we have seen how the wall was built, discussed its purpose, and now we should decide whether or not it was successful. With the objective of keeping out marauding northern tribes in mind, we see that it was indeed successful – so much so that, even after another emperor constructed another wall north of it, it was later brought back to glory due to its effectiveness. It defined the northern border of the Roman Empire in Britain for centuries, and can still be seen today. The one time that I was blessed with the opportunity to visit Hadrian’s Wall, I was extremely impressed – even now, it is astounding what Roman engineers accomplished with no more sophisticated tools than they had.
With that, let’s take a look at some miscellaneous business I think everyone should be aware of. I was alerted to a new podcast, entitled Biography Podcast. I think you can tell what it’s about, but I’ll let Phillip explain a little more.
Thanks, Phillip, for all your hard work, and we’ll all look forward to new episodes of your ‘cast.
British History 101 is listed at podcastalley.com, and I’d really appreciate it if you’d stop by and cast a vote for me if you have a few spare moments during your day. Thanks a lot!
Also – I’m not sure how this episode will sound to those of you who have experienced difficulty in the past. I’m still working with Dan on a solution and am trying as hard as I can to get it worked out. Once again, thank you Dan, and if anyone else has any suggestions, please let me know at your earliest convenience. I appreciate the help so much!
That’s it for this episode of British History 101. If you’d like to look back over our discussion of Hadrian’s Wall, check out my blog at britishhistory101.blogspot.com for a transcript of this and every other episode. Send suggestions, questions, comments, rants, and raves to BritishHistory101@gmail.com. Our music tonight is “Benedicamus Domino,” performed by Joglaresa and available on Magnatune.com. Magnatune is an independent online record label that equally shares all revenue from album sales with their hand-selected artists while allowing them to retain full rights to their works. Visit magnatune.com for great music at low prices and support the many wonderful artists hosted there. Thanks again to all of British History 101’s listeners, Phillip for bringing us Biography Podcast, and all those men and women who acted in the events that gave rise to the history of Britain and thus this podcast. Until next week, my best to you all, and have a great day. I can’t wait to learn with you again.


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Good evening, this is Michael Anthony, and you’re listening to British History 101. After last week’s lack of an installment, I hope the most recent edition of this podcast entertains and educates as much as possible.
Tonight’s episode comes from a suggestion by Gary from Houston, Texas. Gary wrote in and said, “I was wondering if you could do a piece on Hadrian’s Wall – how was it built, what was its purpose, and was it successful?” Thanks for the suggestion, Gary, and we’ll get right to it.
Hadrian’s Wall was constructed by, obviously, Hadrian, Roman emperor from AD 76 to 138. He built it to halt the invading tribes of modern-day Scotland to the north and provide a definite boundary to the British region of the Roman Empire; it also served to prevent dangerous groups of tribes in the area from uniting under one banner by splitting them apart with a physical boundary. During the Roman Empire, Hadrian’s Wall was the most heavily fortified and protected border in all Europe. It may also have served as a way to tax traveling merchants; this is suggested by the several gates found along the wall’s length.
The Wall, which extended from the Solway Firth on the coast of the Irish Sea in eastern modern-day England to Wallsend on the River Tyne across the island to the west, was begun in 122 AD and was more or less complete in ten years’ time. It roughly followed the line of the Stanegate Road running from Corbridge to Carlisle, which previously acted as the border of Roman territory – obviously, a stone wall provides much more protection than a simple road. The Wall crossed the river Irthing; east of the river, the Wall was made of stone and was 3 meters wide by 5 meters tall; west of the river, the Wall was originally a turf barrier 6 meters wide by 3 meters tall. The Wall’s design plans called for a 3 meter wide wall with a ditch and 80 small forts every Roman mile (the Wall was 80 Roman miles or 120 kilometers long) and a system of turrets for signaling and observation along the way. Along the area of the wall made of stone, local limestone was the rock of choice, and the turrets located along the length of the wall made of turf were also constructed strictly of stone. These turrets were all approximately 500 meters apart and only about 5 meters square inside.
Construction took place in 5 mile stretches. One group would lay the foundation all along the way, also building the small forts and turrets as they went, and a following group would build upon the foundation and make up the wall in the preceding group’s tracks. Soon after the Wall was finished, 14-17 full-sized forts were placed under construction along the length of the boundary, each having a garrison between 500 and 1000 troops. The Wall west of the river Irthing was also revamped, being rebuilt in sandstone.
Once the forts were in place, another barrier was built behind the wall itself. This was known as the Vallum, and consisted of a ditch 6 meters wide and 3 meters deep, with 10-meter-wide berms on either side. Causeways provided transportation across the Vallum. In front of the wall, that is, on the northern side, was another berm with pits containing obstacles and another ditch north of that berm. Obviously, this was a formidable barrier in itself to anyone wishing to lead an incursion south into the Romans’ territory – the physical construct was also defended by approximately 10,000 soldiers, including cavalry units 1,000 strong on either end of the wall and all the garrisons between the endpoints.
Hadrian’s Wall functioned as an effective barrier until his death in AD 138. When the new emperor, Antoninus Pius, came to power, he more or less abandoned Hadrian’s Wall and began constructing one of his own 160 kilometers north of the old Roman barrier in 142. This was, oddly enough, known as the Antonine Wall. This Wall was approximately 40 miles long, stretching from Old Kilpatrick to Bo’ness, Falkirk within the borders of modern-day Scotland. Antoninus’ Wall was an impressive construct, taking only 2 years to complete and having forts every two miles. The Wall itself was a turf barrier 4 meters tall with a wide ditch on the north side of it – a somewhat simplified version of Hadrian’s Wall to the south. This Wall formed the northern barrier of the Roman Empire for about 20 years before it was actually abandoned in favor of Hadrian’s Wall, which the occupying Roman legions fell back upon. This was mostly due to the fact that Antoninus was unable to conquer the troublesome tribes of northern Britain. Marcus Aurelius, his successor, made the decision to reinstate Hadrian’s Wall as the main defensive line and border of the Empire in Britain.
The Roman Empire began to lose its grip on the province of Britannia within a few centuries, and in the early 5th century our favorite island territory was devoid of its former Roman occupiers. Local Britons manned the wall for several decades into the 5th century, but soon it began to fall into disuse and the stone forming one of the greatest defensive barriers in human history was used to construct other buildings across the land.
So, Gary, we have seen how the wall was built, discussed its purpose, and now we should decide whether or not it was successful. With the objective of keeping out marauding northern tribes in mind, we see that it was indeed successful – so much so that, even after another emperor constructed another wall north of it, it was later brought back to glory due to its effectiveness. It defined the northern border of the Roman Empire in Britain for centuries, and can still be seen today. The one time that I was blessed with the opportunity to visit Hadrian’s Wall, I was extremely impressed – even now, it is astounding what Roman engineers accomplished with no more sophisticated tools than they had.
With that, let’s take a look at some miscellaneous business I think everyone should be aware of. I was alerted to a new podcast, entitled Biography Podcast. I think you can tell what it’s about, but I’ll let Phillip explain a little more.
Thanks, Phillip, for all your hard work, and we’ll all look forward to new episodes of your ‘cast.
British History 101 is listed at podcastalley.com, and I’d really appreciate it if you’d stop by and cast a vote for me if you have a few spare moments during your day. Thanks a lot!
Also – I’m not sure how this episode will sound to those of you who have experienced difficulty in the past. I’m still working with Dan on a solution and am trying as hard as I can to get it worked out. Once again, thank you Dan, and if anyone else has any suggestions, please let me know at your earliest convenience. I appreciate the help so much!
That’s it for this episode of British History 101. If you’d like to look back over our discussion of Hadrian’s Wall, check out my blog at britishhistory101.blogspot.com for a transcript of this and every other episode. Send suggestions, questions, comments, rants, and raves to BritishHistory101@gmail.com. Our music tonight is “Benedicamus Domino,” performed by Joglaresa and available on Magnatune.com. Magnatune is an independent online record label that equally shares all revenue from album sales with their hand-selected artists while allowing them to retain full rights to their works. Visit magnatune.com for great music at low prices and support the many wonderful artists hosted there. Thanks again to all of British History 101’s listeners, Phillip for bringing us Biography Podcast, and all those men and women who acted in the events that gave rise to the history of Britain and thus this podcast. Until next week, my best to you all, and have a great day. I can’t wait to learn with you again.


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Good evening, everyone, this is Michael Anthony. I’m sorry to say this week is going to have to be an off-week for British History 101 – I have just started a new job, and the demands related to this beginning have been incredibly time consuming. Most workdays are running from 8 AM until about 3 or 4 AM the next morning, so needless to say I’ve had to prioritize a bit this week and getting myself established and settled has been extremely time-consuming – I’ve done what I can on the podcast, but unfortunately I’ve simply not had enough time to complete an episode. I assure you, however, that there will be one next week. That is a personal guarantee.
Also – I am working on correcting my audio problems. Dan from New Zealand has graciously offered to help and is working with me from literally around the world. We are doing our best to get British History 101 up to its full potential as quickly as possible. Thank you, Dan, for your assistance.
With that, I thank you all so very much for tuning in this week, and again apologize for not having something substantial at the moment. I appreciate the absolute outpouring of support from all of British History 101’s listeners and am incredibly grateful for the help everyone has offered. Thanks again, and we will most assuredly talk again next week. Have a great evening.


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Good evening, this is Michael Anthony, and you’re listening to British History 101. Tonight’s discussion will be followed by a bit of housekeeping, so please do stay tuned after the history and give me some feedback if it’s not too much trouble.
In this episode of British History 101, we’ll take a look at the Battle of Dunkirk. Stephen of Belhaven College wrote in last week and asked to hear a bit about this battle, one of World War II’s most famous, and so our topic tonight comes from his suggestion.
The Battle of France began on May 10, 1940 with German Army Groups A and B rolling over the Franco-German border, Group A through the Ardennes area and then turning north, Group B advancing through the Netherlands and heading west through Belgium. Try as they might, Allied forces in the area were unable to stop the German advance over the next several weeks, and the Wehrmacht cut off the British Expeditionary Force, the French 1st and 7th Armies, and the Belgians from the rest of France’s military south of the German incursion. On May 24, Panzer divisions under the control of commander in chief Walther von Brauchitsch were halted outside the Allied city of Dunkirk per orders of the Fuhrer. Adolf Hitler believed that, were the divisions to extend all the way through to Dunkirk, they would be stretched too thinly. This order ran directly contrary to what von Brauchitsch desired. It did, however, allow the Germans to regroup, fortify the areas they had already overrun, and build up strength for the eventual assault on the rest of France.
The day after Hitler stopped his tanks outside Dunkirk, General Lord Gort, the commander of the British Expeditionary Force, ordered the evacuation of all British forces in the area. Over the next 4 days, British forces pulled back closer and closer to the Atlantic coast, creating what is now known as the Dunkirk Pocket along the Franco-Belgian border.
On May 27, Operation Dynamo initiated the actual evacuation of the cornered Allied troops. The next day, May 28, Belgium surrendered to Germany, along with parts of the French 1st Army trapped outside the Dunkirk Pocket. By June 4, 1940, Operation Dynamo was complete, and although the battle was tactically a German victory, the successful evacuation of the thousands of trapped troops was an incredible morale booster to Great Britain – we must remember that by this time, Poland and parts of Europe were already under German control, and the outlook was not good. Saving the lives of the men of the British Expeditionary Force became one of the biggest pieces of propaganda in military history, and the phrase “Dunkirk Spirit” even came to be known to describe solidarity in times of distress.
What was a type of success for the British led to the fall of the French under the Nazi jackboot, as the Germans entered Paris 10 days after Operation Dynamo was complete on June 14, and the French offered surrender to the invaders from the east 8 days later.
That’s it for the history this week. I’d really like to use this episode to, as I said earlier, do a bit of housecleaning, and take care of some business I’ve had on my mind this week regarding British History 101. First of all – a big thank you is due to one listener Michael, who mailed in with a correction to my pronunciation. Previously, I referred to people native to Britain as BRIGHTons. Thanks, Michael, for alerting me the word is said as BRITTens. I ask anyone and everyone to let me know if I do say something incorrectly – I don’t want British History 101 to present anything in any fashion other than correct!
Next, I’m concerned I’m having some audio problems with the podcast. Several listeners have let me know they’re having trouble with the volume level of my recording. When I play the ‘cast back in iTunes on my computer, I have no trouble whatsoever, and most people say it’s perfectly fine on their systems. If you are indeed having difficulty with the volume level and have any idea as to what could be causing it, I’d love to get some feedback as to what the problem could be – I want British History 101 to be 100% accessible to every person that downloads it. Each and every listener I’ve been in contact with has been so incredibly supportive and I really do appreciate that. Much thanks to EVERYONE who listens.
Anyone who listens to this podcast would greatly benefit by listening to Matt Dattilo’s podcast Matt’s Today in History. It’s a fascinating look at the events that have shaped our world and I strongly recommend it to each and every listener of British History 101. More from Matt:
Thanks for that, Matt, I know there are a large number of people out there that love your podcast just as much as me. Keep up the great work.
That concludes tonight’s episode. If you’d like to look back over our discussion of Dunkirk, visit britishhistory101.blogspot.com for a transcript of this and every other episode. Send suggestions, questions, comments, rants, and raves to BritishHistory101@gmail.com. Our music tonight is “Gather Your Rosebuds,” performed by Jeni Malia and available on Magnatune.com. Magnatune is an independent online record label that equally shares all revenue from album sales with their hand-selected artists while allowing them to retain full rights to their works. Visit magnatune.com for great music at low prices and support the many wonderful artists hosted there. Until we talk again, many thanks for listening, and have a great evening.


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Good evening, this is Michael Anthony, and you’re listening to British History 101. I’d like to start tonight with a clarification on last week’s episode covering the Battle of Trafalgar. Once I listened to the podcast after it was released, I realized I never even mentioned why it’s called the Battle of Trafalgar. It was so named because it was fought off the coast of Spain, near the Cape of Trafalgar. Sorry to leave that little bit out – this week’s episode won’t feature any slips like that.
Tonight we’ll be learning about Boudicca, also know as Boadicea, the warrior queen of native Britons during the time of the Romans. When the Roman Empire extended its reach over British lands, the rulers of the native peoples were forced to pay local Roman officials if they wanted protection from attackers. The king who gave rise to Boudicca’s reign was Prasutagus, her husband. Prasutagus ruled the Iceni people, native Britons who inhabited the area around modern-day Norfolk. When Prasutagus died in 60 A.D., he did the customary duty of kings and gave half his wealth and territories to Nero, the Roman emperor at the time. The other half, along with his power as ruler of the Iceni, went to his widow, Boudicca, who would keep it under her care until Prasutagus’ daughters came of age. This was completely normal at the time – the Iceni people accepted feminine authority, and to them Boudicca’s gender presented no problems. However, the Romans thought otherwise. Being the “real” authority in the land, they treated Boudicca with contempt and outright hostility. She was publicly beaten by her Roman overlords and her daughters were raped. The lands of the Iceni nobles were confiscated, and the Roman historian Tacitus tells us, “Kingdom and household alike were plundered like prizes of war.” War itself didn’t come until the following year, when Boudicca led her people in revolt against what the Romans were doing.
Dio Cassius, another Roman historian who has left us with details on the life of Boudicca, describes the queen by saying, “In stature she was very tall, in appearance most terrifying. Her glance was fierce, her voice harsh, a great mass of the most tawny hair cascaded to her hips.” From this, we can see that Boudicca was quite an imposing figure – and for good reason. She went on to lead one of the most violent periods in British history, and it started with the destruction of the town we now call Colchester.
Colchester was the first target of Boudicca’s wrath. She and the band of her followers destroyed the town, causing so much destruction that in 1907 a young boy swimming in the River Alde, Suffolk, the county north of Colchester’s Essex, found a bronze head of the Emperor Claudius. After the destruction of Britain’s oldest city, Boudicca led her army towards Londinium, the relatively new Roman town that later developed into the global hub we know as London nowadays. Londinium received no better treatment than Colchester – it was burned to the ground, and excavators along the River Thames in London have discovered a layer of red clay under centuries of the construction that built London that they have called Boudicca’s layer.
During all this, most of the Roman army was occupied in the northwest, hunting down the Druids they found to be so troublesome. Boudicca decided the Roman military was her next objective, and so she headed off to confront the army and get vengeance for the injustices committed against her and her people. However, Boudicca and her army weren’t alone on their trip – as Boudicca had picked up troops to rally behind her cause all along the way, many soldiers brought their entire families with them. This caused the rebel army to have an enormous train of civilians following behind them. In essence, all those opposed to Roman cruelty were massed together behind their tawny-haired leader, marching across the British countryside to battle the foreign rulers.
After stopping briefly in Verulanium, modern-day St. Albans, to demolish the city, Boudicca most likely encountered the Roman army under the command of Governor Suetonius in the Midlands, north of Coventry near Mancetter. Confronted with the vastly better trained yet smaller in number Roman army, Tacitus tells us that Boudicca paraded before her soldiers in her chariot, rallying them by saying, “I am fighting for my lost freedom, my bruised body, and my outraged daughters. Consider how many of you are fighting and why – then you will win this battle, or perish! That is what I, a woman, plan to do! Let the men live in slavery if the want to!” If ever their was an ancient inspiration of girl power, it was Boudicca.
Although Boudicca and her rebels overwhelmingly held the numerical advantage, the professional Roman army slowly wore down the native army. The train of families following Boudicca had fanned out around the battle site to watch the carnage, and this proved to be the end of the warrior queen. When the rebels were driven back by the Romans, the families’ positions accidentally acted to hem in the army – they were being pushed back by the Romans and had nowhere to go. The rebels were utterly slaughtered, losing 80,000 soldiers to the Roman casualty count of 400. Boudicca and her daughters all took poison, choosing to end their own lives rather than fall into Roman hands again. So ended Boudicca’s Revolt.
In 1902, a statue was raised near Parliament, showing Boudicca in all her battle-earned glory. According to legend, Boudicca fell in battle directly under platform 10 at King’s Cross metro station – of course, this is purely fictional, as most historians agree the warrior died in the Midlands at what has become known as the Battle of Watling Street.
Boudicca’s Revolt ultimately failed. However, the memory of those violent times is part of the soul of Britain today – that indomitable spirit that refuses to live under oppression and tyranny, epitomized by the valiant people that lead Britain to becoming what she is today.
That’s it for this episode of British History 101. If you’d like to look back over Boudicca’s Revolt, check out my blog at britishhistory101.blogspot.com for a transcript of this and every other episode. Send suggestions, questions, comments, rants, and raves to BritishHistory101@gmail.com. Our music tonight is “O Madalena Che Portasti" performed by Joglaresa and available on Magnatune.com. Magnatune is an independent online record label that equally shares all revenue from album sales with their hand-selected artists while allowing them to retain full rights to their works. Visit magnatune.com for great music at low prices and support the many wonderful artists hosted there. My best to you all, and as always thank you so very much for listening to and supporting British History 101. Have a great night, and we’ll learn together next week.


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